The Four Fundamental Forces

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	mediatorParticle	interactionType	unification	discoverer	mathematicalFormulation	experimentalEvidence	quantumTheory	classicalTheory	applications	symmetry	discoveryYear	strength	range	strengthScale	massless
Gravity	Graviton (theoretical)	All particles with mass	Not unified with other forces yet	Isaac Newton	F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2	Cavendish experiment	General Relativity (attempts at Quantum Gravity)	Newton's Law of Gravitation	Orbits, planetary motion, tides	Spacetime symmetry	1687	6.6743e-11	Infinity	1	true
Electromagnetic	Photon	Charged particles	Unified with weak force (Electroweak theory)	James Clerk Maxwell	F = k * (q1 * q2) / r^2	Hertz's experiments on electromagnetic waves	Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)	Maxwell's Equations	Electricity, magnetism, light	Gauge symmetry (U(1))	1864	1	Infinity	2	true
Weak	W and Z bosons	All fermions	Unified with electromagnetic force (Electroweak theory)	Enrico Fermi	Described by Fermi's interaction	Observed in beta decay	Quantum Flavour Dynamics (QFD)	Fermi's Theory of Beta Decay	Radioactive decay, nuclear fusion	Gauge symmetry (SU(2))	1934	0.00001	1e-18	3	false
Strong	Gluon	Quarks and gluons	Part of Grand Unified Theories (GUTs)	Murray Gell-Mann	Described by Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)	Deep inelastic scattering experiments	Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)	Does not have a classical counterpart	Binding protons and neutrons in nuclei	Gauge symmetry (SU(3))	1973	1	1e-15	4	true

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	8	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Gravity	string	1	false	true
mediatorParticle	8	200%	The particle that mediates the force	Graviton (theoretical)	string	1.9	false
interactionType	8	200%	The type of particles that the force interacts with	All particles with mass	string	1.9	false
unification	8	200%	Theoretical unification of the force with others	Not unified with other forces yet	string	1.9	false
discoverer	8	200%	The scientist(s) who discovered or proposed the force	Isaac Newton	string	1.9	false
mathematicalFormulation	8	200%	The mathematical formulation or equation that describes the force	F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2	string	1.9	false
experimentalEvidence	8	200%	Key experimental evidence supporting the existence of the force	Cavendish experiment	string	1.9	false
quantumTheory	8	200%	The quantum field theory describing the force	General Relativity (attempts at Quantum Gravity)	string	1.9	false
classicalTheory	8	200%	The classical theory or law describing the force	Newton's Law of Gravitation	string	1.9	false
applications	8	200%	Practical applications or phenomena explained by the force	Orbits, planetary motion, tides	string	1.9	false
symmetry	8	200%	The symmetry or invariance associated with the force	Spacetime symmetry	string	1.9	false
discoveryYear	8	200%	The year the force was discovered or proposed	1687	number	1.9	false
strength	8	200%	The relative strength of the force compared to the other forces	6.6743e-11	number	1.9	false
range	8	200%	The range of the force in meters	Infinity	number	1.9	false
strengthScale	8	200%	The scale of strength (from 0 to 1) for comparison among the forces	1	number	1.9	false
massless	8	200%	Whether the mediator particle is massless (true/false)	true	boolean	1.9	false

The 30 Most Important Equations in Physics - ChatGPT

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	creditedTo	country	fieldOfPhysics	equation	yearAppeared	applications	complexity
Newton's Second Law	Isaac Newton	England	Mechanics	F = ma	1687	100	2
Einstein's Mass-Energy Equivalence	Albert Einstein	Switzerland	Relativity	E = mc^2	1905	50	5
Schrödinger Equation	Erwin Schrödinger	Austria	Quantum Mechanics	i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial t}\psi = \hat{H}\psi	1926	100	7
Maxwell's Equations	James Clerk Maxwell	Scotland	Electromagnetism	\begin{align} \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} &= \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0} \\ \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} &= 0 \\ \nabla \times \mathbf{E} &= -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \\ \nabla \times \mathbf{B} &= \mu_0 \mathbf{J} + \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} \end{align}	1865	50	6
Boltzmann Equation	Ludwig Boltzmann	Austria	Statistical Mechanics	\frac{\partial f}{\partial t} + \mathbf{v} \cdot \nabla f + \mathbf{a} \cdot \frac{\partial f}{\partial \mathbf{v}} = \left( \frac{\partial f}{\partial t} \right)_\text{collision}	1872	30	8
Planck's Equation	Max Planck	Germany	Quantum Mechanics	E = h\nu	1900	40	6
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle	Werner Heisenberg	Germany	Quantum Mechanics	\Delta x \Delta p \geq \frac{\hbar}{2}	1927	20	5
Hubble's Law	Edwin Hubble	USA	Cosmology	v = H_0 d	1929	25	4
Fourier Transform	Joseph Fourier	France	Mathematical Physics	\hat{f}(\xi) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) e^{-2\pi i x \xi} \, dx	1822	70	6
Lorentz Transformation	Hendrik Lorentz	Netherlands	Relativity	\begin{align} t' &= \gamma \left( t - \frac{vx}{c^2} \right) \\ x' &= \gamma (x - vt) \end{align}	1904	20	6
Dirac Equation	Paul Dirac	UK	Quantum Mechanics	\left( i\gamma^\mu \partial_\mu - m \right) \psi = 0	1928	30	9
Navier-Stokes Equation	Claude-Louis Navier, George Gabriel Stokes	France, UK	Fluid Mechanics	\rho \left( \frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t} + (\mathbf{u} \cdot \nabla) \mathbf{u} \right) = -\nabla p + \mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} + \mathbf{f}	1822	50	9
Ohm's Law	Georg Ohm	Germany	Electromagnetism	V = IR	1827	100	2
Hooke's Law	Robert Hooke	England	Mechanics	F = -kx	1678	60	2
Kepler's Third Law	Johannes Kepler	Germany	Astronomy	T^2 \propto r^3	1619	30	3
Bernoulli's Principle	Daniel Bernoulli	Switzerland	Fluid Mechanics	p + \frac{1}{2}\rho v^2 + \rho gh = \text{constant}	1738	50	4
Faraday's Law of Induction	Michael Faraday	England	Electromagnetism	\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}	1831	40	5
Stefan-Boltzmann Law	Josef Stefan, Ludwig Boltzmann	Austria	Thermodynamics	j^* = \sigma T^4	1879	30	5
Lenz's Law	Heinrich Lenz	Russia	Electromagnetism	\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}	1834	30	4
Coulomb's Law	Charles-Augustin de Coulomb	France	Electrostatics	F = k_e \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}	1785	50	3
Fermi-Dirac Statistics	Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac	Italy, UK	Quantum Mechanics	f(E) = \frac{1}{e^{(E - \mu)/kT} + 1}	1926	40	7
Bose-Einstein Statistics	Satyendra Nath Bose, Albert Einstein	India, Germany	Quantum Mechanics	f(E) = \frac{1}{e^{(E - \mu)/kT} - 1}	1924	30	7
Wien's Displacement Law	Wilhelm Wien	Germany	Thermodynamics	\lambda_\text{peak} T = b	1893	25	5
Poisson's Equation	Siméon Denis Poisson	France	Mathematical Physics	\nabla^2 \phi = -\frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0}	1813	30	6
Ampère's Law	André-Marie Ampère	France	Electromagnetism	\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{J}	1826	40	4
Biot-Savart Law	Jean-Baptiste Biot, Félix Savart	France	Electromagnetism	d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{\hat{r}}}{r^2}	1820	30	5
Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws	Gustav Kirchhoff	Germany	Electrical Circuits	\begin{align} \sum I = 0 \\ \sum V = 0 \end{align}	1845	50	3
Gibbs Free Energy	Josiah Willard Gibbs	USA	Thermodynamics	G = H - TS	1873	30	6
Avogadro's Law	Amedeo Avogadro	Italy	Chemistry	V \propto n	1811	30	3
de Broglie Hypothesis	Louis de Broglie	France	Quantum Mechanics	\lambda = \frac{h}{p}	1924	25	6

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	60	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Newton's Second Law	string	1	false	true
creditedTo	60	200%	The person or persons credited with the formulation of the equation	Isaac Newton	string	1.9	false
country	60	200%	The country associated with the credited person(s) at the time of the formulation	England	string	1.9	false
fieldOfPhysics	60	200%	The field of physics where the equation is primarily used	Mechanics	string	1.9	false
equation	60	200%	The equation written in KaTeX (LaTeX)	F = ma	string	1.9	false
yearAppeared	60	200%	The year the equation first appeared or was formulated	1687	number	1.9	false
applications	60	200%	The number of major applications or uses of the equation	100	number	1.9	false
complexity	60	200%	The relative complexity of the equation (scale 1 to 10)	2	number	1.9	false

The 30 Most Important Equations in Physics - Claude

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	creditedTo	country	application	impact	yearAppeared	importanceRank
Newton's Second Law (F = ma)	Isaac Newton	England	Classical mechanics	Fundamental equation of motion, used in all areas of physics	1687	1
Maxwell's Equations	James Clerk Maxwell	Scotland	Electromagnetism	Unified electricity, magnetism, and light; basis for modern electrodynamics	1865	2
Schrödinger Equation	Erwin Schrödinger	Austria	Quantum mechanics	Describes the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level	1926	3
Einstein's Energy-Mass Equivalence (E = mc^2)	Albert Einstein	Germany/Switzerland	Special relativity, nuclear physics	Relates energy to mass, key to understanding nuclear reactions and energy	1905	4
Hubble's Law	Edwin Hubble	United States	Cosmology	Established the expansion of the universe, cornerstone of Big Bang theory	1929	5
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle	Werner Heisenberg	Germany	Quantum mechanics	Fundamental limit on precision of measurements at quantum scale	1927	6
Boltzmann's Entropy Equation	Ludwig Boltzmann	Austria	Thermodynamics, statistical mechanics	Relates entropy to number of microscopic states, foundation of statistical physics	1877	7
Planck's Energy Quantum	Max Planck	Germany	Quantum mechanics	Introduced the concept of energy quanta, launching quantum theory	1900	8
Dirac Equation	Paul Dirac	England	Quantum mechanics, special relativity	Relativistic quantum mechanical wave equation, predicted antimatter	1928	9
Euler's Equation (e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0)	Leonhard Euler	Switzerland	Complex analysis	Relates fundamental constants e, i, pi; considered most beautiful equation	1748	10
Principle of Least Action	Pierre Louis Maupertuis	France	Classical mechanics	Alternative formulation of mechanics using variational principle	1744	11
Noether's Theorem	Emmy Noether	Germany	Theoretical physics	Connects symmetries to conservation laws, fundamental to modern physics	1915	12
Navier-Stokes Equations	Claude-Louis Navier, George Stokes	France, Ireland	Fluid dynamics	Describes motion of viscous fluids, used in aerodynamics, weather, & more	1822	13
Riemann Hypothesis	Bernhard Riemann	Germany	Number theory	Conjectured rule for distribution of prime numbers, unproven but very important	1859	14
Gauss's Law	Carl Friedrich Gauss	Germany	Electrostatics	Relates electric field to charge distribution, part of Maxwell's equations	1835	15
Ampère's Circuital Law	André-Marie Ampère	France	Magnetostatics	Relates magnetic field to electric current, part of Maxwell's equations	1826	16
Faraday's Law of Induction	Michael Faraday	England	Electromagnetism	Describes how changing magnetic field induces electric field	1831	17
Boyle's Law	Robert Boyle	Ireland	Thermodynamics	Relates pressure and volume of gas at constant temperature	1662	18
Fourier's Heat Equation	Joseph Fourier	France	Heat transfer	Describes conduction of heat in solids, used in many applications	1822	19
Coulomb's Law	Charles-Augustin de Coulomb	France	Electrostatics	Describes force between electric charges, foundation of electrostatics	1785	20
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion	Johannes Kepler	Germany	Astronomy	Describes motion of planets around the Sun, basis for Newton's gravity	1609	21
Lorentz Force Law	Hendrik Lorentz	Netherlands	Electromagnetism	Describes force on charge moving in electromagnetic field	1895	22
Biot-Savart Law	Jean-Baptiste Biot, Félix Savart	France	Magnetostatics	Describes magnetic field generated by electric current	1820	23
Fermat's Principle of Least Time	Pierre de Fermat	France	Optics	Light travels path that takes least time, explains refraction and reflection	1662	24
Fresnel Equations	Augustin-Jean Fresnel	France	Optics	Describe reflection and transmission of light at interface between media	1823	25
Snell's Law	Willebrord Snellius	Netherlands	Optics	Relates angles of incidence and refraction for light crossing boundary	1621	26
Hooke's Law	Robert Hooke	England	Mechanics, materials science	Linearly relates force and extension in spring, describes elastic materials	1660	27
Bragg's Law	William Henry Bragg, William Lawrence Bragg	England	Crystallography	Describes condition for diffraction by crystal lattice planes	1913	28
Carnot's Theorem	Sadi Carnot	France	Thermodynamics	Limits the maximum efficiency of any heat engine	1824	29
Lagrange's Equations	Joseph-Louis Lagrange	Italy/France	Classical mechanics	Reformulates Newtonian mechanics, basis for Hamiltonian mechanics	1788	30

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	60	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Newton's Second Law (F = ma)	string	1	false	true
creditedTo	60	200%	The physicist(s) credited with discovering or formulating the equation	Isaac Newton	string	1.9	false
country	60	200%	The country where the equation was discovered or formulated	England	string	1.9	false
application	60	200%	The primary application or area of physics the equation is used in	Classical mechanics	string	1.9	false
impact	60	200%	The impact or significance of the equation in physics and beyond	Fundamental equation of motion, used in all areas of physics	string	1.9	false
yearAppeared	60	200%	The year the equation first appeared	1687	number	1.9	false
importanceRank	60	200%	The ranking of the equation's importance in physics (1 = most important)	1	number	1.9	false

Animals that Hibernate

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	habitat	diet	averageHibernationDuration	bodyTemperatureDrop	heartRateReduction	breathingRateReduction	energySaved
Brown Bear	Forests	Omnivorous	180	10	20	5	50
Arctic Ground Squirrel	Tundra	Herbivorous	240	60	100	25	60
Common Poorwill	Deserts	Insectivorous	120	12	20	5	30
European Hedgehog	Woodlands	Insectivorous	150	40	50	10	70
Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur	Tropical Forests	Frugivorous	180	15	15	5	40
Box Turtle	Forests and Grasslands	Omnivorous	150	20	10	2	50
Big Brown Bat	Caves and Forests	Insectivorous	180	30	100	20	80
Alpine Marmot	Mountains	Herbivorous	180	50	90	15	70
Raccoon	Forests and Urban Areas	Omnivorous	120	10	30	5	40
Eastern Chipmunk	Forests	Omnivorous	90	10	20	5	30
Wood Frog	Wetlands	Insectivorous	180	30	0	0	60
Snapping Turtle	Freshwater	Omnivorous	180	20	10	2	50
Blanding's Turtle	Freshwater	Omnivorous	150	20	10	2	50
Garter Snake	Grasslands	Carnivorous	180	10	10	5	40
Bumblebee	Gardens and Meadows	Nectar and Pollen	210	20	10	10	60
Groundhog	Fields and Forests	Herbivorous	150	40	50	10	70
Bear	Forests and Mountains	Omnivorous	120	12	10	5	50
Jerboa	Deserts	Herbivorous	180	15	20	5	40
Little Brown Bat	Caves and Forests	Insectivorous	180	30	100	20	80
Deer Mouse	Forests and Grasslands	Omnivorous	180	20	10	5	50

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	40	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Brown Bear	string	1	false	true
habitat	40	200%	The typical habitat of the animal	Forests	string	1.9	false
diet	40	200%	The typical diet of the animal	Omnivorous	string	1.9	false
averageHibernationDuration	40	200%	The average duration of hibernation in days	180	number	1.9	false
bodyTemperatureDrop	40	200%	The average drop in body temperature during hibernation in degrees Fahrenheit	10	number	1.9	false
heartRateReduction	40	200%	The average reduction in heart rate during hibernation in beats per minute (bpm)	20	number	1.9	false
breathingRateReduction	40	200%	The average reduction in breathing rate during hibernation in breaths per minute	5	number	1.9	false
energySaved	40	200%	The percentage of energy saved during hibernation	50	number	1.9	false

Hormones

This demonstrates putting Tab Separated Values (TSVs) directly in Scroll files.

Although this approach is handy for small datasets, it does not scale as well as ScrollSets.

Hormone_Name	Chemical_Formula	Min_Level_mmol_L	Max_Level_mmol_L	Peptide_Hormone	Steroid_Hormone	Amine_Hormone	Half_Life_Minutes	Pulsatile_Release	Endocrine_Gland_ID
Insulin	C₂₅₇H₃₈₃N₆₅O₇₇S₆	0.0000365	0.000180	true	false	false	6	false	4
Glucagon	C₁₅₃H₂₂₅N₄₃O₄₉S	0.00000125	0.000009	true	false	false	5	false	4
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)	C₁₅H₁₁I₄NO₄ (T4), C₁₅H₁₂I₃NO₄ (T3)	0.0012 (T4), 0.0000015 (T3)	0.0023 (T4), 0.0000025 (T3)	false	false	true	10080 (T4), 2880 (T3)	false	2
Cortisol	C₂₁H₃₀O₅	0.138	0.690	false	true	false	60	true	3
Adrenaline (epinephrine)	C₉H₁₃NO₃	0.00000546	0.00002180	false	false	true	2	false	3
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)	C₈H₁₁NO₃	0.00000709	0.00005680	false	false	true	2	false	3
Growth hormone	C₉₉₀H₁₅₂₉N₂₆₃O₃₀₀S₇	0.0000003	0.000040	true	false	false	20	true	1
Testosterone	C₁₉H₂₈O₂	0.00934	0.03470	false	true	false	60	false	5
Estrogen	C₁₈H₂₄O₂ (Estradiol)	0.0000001	0.0000004	false	true	false	1440	false	5
Progesterone	C₂₁H₃₀O₂	0.000032	0.001590	false	true	false	1440	false	5
Prolactin	C₁₉₉H₃₁₀N₅₆O₅₉S	0.00000087	0.00000430	true	false	false	30	true	1
Oxytocin	C₄₃H₆₆N₁₂O₁₂S₂	0.00000007	0.00000007	true	false	false	3	true	1
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)	C₄₆H₆₅N₁₅O₁₂S₂	0.00000028	0.00000028	true	false	false	10	true	1
Parathyroid hormone	C₄₁₁H₆₂₆N₁₀₆O₁₁₀S₂	0.0000043	0.0000090	true	false	false	4	true	6
Calcitonin	C₁₄₅H₂₄₀N₄₄O₄₈S₂	0.0000003	0.0000065	true	false	false	10	false	2
Leptin	C₇₇₇H₁₂₁₂N₂₁₂O₂₄₃S₃	0.0000027	0.0000270	true	false	false	90	false	0
Ghrelin	C₁₄₉H₂₄₅N₄₅O₄₈	0.00000096	0.00000790	true	false	false	30	true	0
Melatonin	C₁₃H₁₆N₂O₂	0.0000001	0.0000005	false	false	true	40	true	7
Serotonin	C₁₀H₁₂N₂O	0.0000006	0.0000020	false	false	true	10	false	0
Dopamine	C₈H₁₁NO₂	0.0000001	0.0000002	false	false	true	2	false	0
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)	C₄₃₇H₆₈₂N₁₂₂O₁₃₄S₁₃	0.0025	0.0210	true	false	false	180	true	1
Luteinizing hormone (LH)	C₅₆₈H₉₁₂N₁₆₂O₁₇₇S₁₅	0.0080	0.0790	true	false	false	60	true	1
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)	C₂₀₇H₃₀₈N₅₆O₅₈S	0.000002	0.000022	true	false	false	10	true	1
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)	C₂₁₂H₃₃₂N₅₈O₆₄S₁₀	0.00045	0.00462	true	false	false	60	true	1
Erythropoietin (EPO)	C₈₁₅H₁₃₁₇N₂₂₉O₂₄₁S₅	0.000002	0.000030	true	false	false	360	false	9
Renin	C₁₂₈₉H₂₀₂₆N₃₅₂O₃₈₀S₆	0.00000060	0.00000300	true	false	false	30	true	10
Aldosterone	C₂₁H₂₈O₅	0.00000083	0.00000970	false	true	false	30	true	3
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)	C₄₆H₆₅N₁₅O₁₂S₂	0.00000028	0.00000028	true	false	false	10	true	1
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)	C₁₂₈H₂₂₄N₅₀O₄₅	0.00000030	0.00000065	true	false	false	2	true	11
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)	C₂₄₇H₃₈₂N₆₈O₇₅S₆	0.00000006	0.00001700	true	false	false	10	false	0
Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D)	C₂₇H₄₄O₃	0.0000000314	0.0000001555	false	true	false	900	false	12
Cholecystokinin (CCK)	C₇₃H₁₁₅N₁₉O₂₈S₂	0.00000003	0.00000020	true	false	false	5	true	0
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)	C₂₀₈H₃₂₈N₆₀O₆₂S₄	0.00000004	0.00000020	true	false	false	4	true	8
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)	C₁₉H₂₈O₂	0.00324	0.01390	false	true	false	4320	false	3
Endorphins	C₁₇₃H₂₇₁N₅₇O₄₆S	0.00000006	0.00000060	true	false	false	7	false	0
Gastrin	C₅₁H₈₀N₁₈O₁₈S₃	0.00000002	0.00000040	true	false	false	6	true	13
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)	C₁₅₂H₂₄₂N₄₄O₅₅	0.00000007	0.00000055	true	false	false	2	true	14
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)	C₂₁₇H₃₁₆N₅₆O₅₇	0.00000002	0.00000009	true	false	false	6	true	8
Histamine	C₅H₉N₃	0.0000005	0.0000020	false	false	true	1	false	0
Incretin	C₁₈₇H₂₈₅N₅₇O₆₂	0.00000004	0.00000055	true	false	false	3	true	14
Inhibin	C₅₅₇H₈₆₆N₁₄₈O₁₈₀S₆	0.00000175	0.00000260	true	false	false	100	false	5
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)	C₇₇H₁₀₉N₂₁O₂₀	0.000000004	0.000000100	true	false	false	20	false	1
Motilin	C₁₁₄H₁₇₈N₃₂O₃₁S₂	0.00000007	0.00000027	true	false	false	5	true	13
Neuropeptide Y (NPY)	C₁₈₉H₂₈₅N₅₅O₅₇	0.0000002	0.0000008	true	false	false	20	false	0
Orexin	C₅₆H₈₃N₁₃O₁₃	0.000000002	0.000000100	true	false	false	20	true	0
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)	C₁₄₂H₂₂₄N₄₂O₄₄	0.00000020	0.00000500	true	false	false	7	true	4
Peptide YY (PYY)	C₁₉₄H₂₉₅N₅₇O₅₇	0.00000003	0.00000070	true	false	false	8	true	14
Secretin	C₁₃₀H₂₀₅N₃₉O₄₂	0.00000002	0.00000055	true	false	false	5	true	15
Somatostatin	C₇₆H₁₀₄N₁₈O₁₉S₂	0.00000005	0.00000025	true	false	false	1	false	4
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)	C₁₆H₂₂N₆O₄	0.000000165	0.000000870	true	false	false	5	true	8

Natural Disasters

This demonstrates putting Tab Separated Values (TSVs) directly in Scroll files.

Although this approach is handy for small datasets, it does not scale as well as ScrollSets.

Natural Disaster	Description	Measurement Scale	Min	Max
Hurricane	A tropical cyclone with sustained winds of 74 mph (119 km/h) or higher	Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale	1	5
Earthquake	Sudden shaking of the Earth's surface caused by the release of energy	Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)	0	10
Tsunami	A series of ocean waves caused by underwater disturbances, such as earthquakes	Tsunami Intensity Scale	1	6
Tornado	A violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground	Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale	0	5
Volcanic Eruption	The release of lava, ash, and gases from a volcano	Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)	0	8
Wildfire	An uncontrolled fire in a natural area, often caused by lightning or human activity	Burned Area	0	Varies
Flood	An overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry	Flood Severity	0	Varies
Drought	A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a water shortage	Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI)	-10	10
Landslide	The movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope due to gravity	Landslide Velocity Scale	1	7
Avalanche	A rapid flow of snow down a slope, often triggered by weather or human activity	Avalanche Danger Scale	1	5
Blizzard	A severe snowstorm with high winds and low visibility	Regional Snowfall Index (RSI)	1	5
Hailstorm	A storm that produces hailstones, which are balls of ice that fall from the sky	TORRO Hailstorm Intensity Scale	H0	H10
Heat Wave	A prolonged period of excessively hot weather	Heat Index (HI)	80°F	Varies
Cold Wave	A prolonged period of excessively cold weather	Wind Chill Index	Varies	Varies
Dust Storm	A strong wind that carries large amounts of dust and debris	Dust Storm Intensity	0	Varies
Sinkhole	A depression or hole in the ground caused by the collapse of the surface layer	Sinkhole Size	0	Varies
Limnic Eruption	A rare type of natural disaster where dissolved carbon dioxide suddenly erupts from deep lake water	No Scale	-	-
Meteor Impact	The collision of a meteoroid, asteroid, or comet with the Earth's surface	Torino Impact Hazard Scale	0	10
Solar Flare	A sudden, rapid, and intense variation in brightness on the Sun's surface	Solar Flare Classification System (X-class)	A1	X28+
Geomagnetic Storm	A temporary disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere caused by solar wind shock waves	NOAA Space Weather Scale for Geomagnetic Storms	G1	G5

Waves

This demonstrates putting Tab Separated Values (TSVs) directly in Scroll files.

Although this approach is handy for small datasets, it does not scale as well as ScrollSets.

Name	Transverse	Longitudinal	Medium Required	Propagation Speed (m/s)	Min Frequency (Hz)	Max Frequency (Hz)	Common Sources	Primary Uses or Effects	Key Characteristics	Examples	Impact on Environment/Humans
Electromagnetic Waves	True	False	False	299792458	Varies	Varies	Sun, radio transmitters	Communication, medical imaging, cooking	Can travel in vacuum and through transparent media	Radio broadcasts, X-rays	Varies; UV can cause skin cancer
Sound Waves	False	True	True	343	20	20000	Vibrating objects	Communication, music, sonar	Travels through elastic media	Talking, concerts, ultrasound imaging	Noise pollution can affect health and well-being
Seismic Waves	True	True	True	3500	Varies	Varies	Earthquakes, explosions	Earthquake engineering, oil exploration	Can cause significant ground movement	Earthquakes, nuclear testing	Can cause extensive property damage and loss of life
Gravitational Waves	True	False	False	299792458	0.0001	Varies	Colliding black holes, neutron stars	Astronomy, testing theories of gravity	Ripples in spacetime	Facilitated by LIGO and other observatories	None known; mostly relevant for astrophysics
Thermal Waves	False	True	True	Varies	Varies	Varies	Heating elements, sun	Heating, climate control	Move through conduction, convection, or radiation	Heat in homes, atmospheric heat waves	Heat waves can cause health issues and environmental stress
Chemical Waves	False	True	True	Varies	Varies	Varies	Chemical reactions	Chemical processing, biological signaling	Propagation of reaction and diffusion	Calcium waves in cells, Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction	Can be critical in biological processes
Combustion Waves	False	True	True	Varies	Varies	Varies	Fire, explosions	Fire safety, controlled burns	Propagation of fire through combustible materials	Wildfires, controlled burns	Can cause massive destruction and pollution

The Fastest Modes of Human Transportation

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	speed	yearInvented	passengers	range
High-speed rail	268	1964	1000	1500
Maglev train	375	1984	1000	500
Hyperloop (proposed)	760	2013	28	900
Concorde (retired)	1354	1969	100	4500
Boeing 747	614	1969	660	9800
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (retired)	2193	1964	2	3200
Space Shuttle (retired)	17500	1981	7	500
SpaceX Crew Dragon	17500	2020	7	500
Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo	2500	2018	6	50
Blue Origin New Shepard	2500	2015	6	60
Bugatti Chiron Super Sport 300+	304	2019	2	300
Hennessey Venom GT	270	2010	2	400
Koenigsegg Agera RS	278	2015	2	600
ThrustSSC (land speed record car)	763	1997	1	50
North American X-15 (retired)	4520	1959	1	200

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	30	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	High-speed rail	string	1	false	true
speed	30	200%	The maximum speed of the transportation mode in miles per hour (mph)	268	number	1.9	false
yearInvented	30	200%	The year the transportation mode was invented	1964	number	1.9	false
passengers	30	200%	The typical number of passengers the transportation mode can carry	1000	number	1.9	false
range	30	200%	The maximum range of the transportation mode in miles	1500	number	1.9	false

Big(O) Complexity Classes in Programming

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	classDescription	commonAlgorithms
O(1)	Execution time remains constant regardless of input size.	Finding array element by index, adding a node to the head of a linked list
O(log n)	Execution time grows logarithmically in proportion to the input size.	Binary search
O(n)	Execution time grows linearly with the input size.	Linear search, traversing an array
O(n log n)	Execution time grows linearly and logarithmically with the input size.	Quick sort, merge sort
O(n^2)	Execution time grows quadratically with the input size.	Bubble sort, selection sort, insertion sort
O(n^3)	Execution time grows cubically with the input size.	Naive matrix multiplication
O(2^n)	Execution time grows exponentially based on the input size.	Brute force solutions for the traveling salesman problem, recursive calculation of Fibonacci numbers
O(n!)	Execution time grows factorially based on the input size.	Solving the traveling salesman problem via brute force, generating all permutations of a set

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	16	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	O(1)	string	1	false	true
classDescription	16	200%	A brief explanation of the complexity class, often describing how the time or space requirements grow with the size of the input.	Execution time remains constant regardless of input size.	string	1.9	false
commonAlgorithms	16	200%	Examples of algorithms or operations that typically exhibit this level of complexity.	Finding array element by index, adding a node to the head of a linked list	string	1.9	false

Microscopes

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	wikipedia	type	applications	keyAdvancements	inventorDeveloper	invented	resolution
Optical Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope	Optical	General biological and medical microscopy	Improved lens quality and microscope design for better image clarity and detail.	Zacharias Janssen (attributed)	1590	200
Electron Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope	Electron	Cellular biology, materials science, virology	Enhanced magnification and resolution, allowing visualization of structures at the atomic level.	Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll	1931	0.2
Scanning Tunneling Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope	Scanning Probe	Surface science, nanotechnology	Ability to image surfaces at the atomic level.	Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer	1981	0.1
Confocal Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confocal_microscopy	Optical	3D imaging of biological samples	Provides optical sectioning capability to observe multiple layers within specimens.	Marvin Minsky	1957	200
Atomic Force Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy	Scanning Probe	Nanotechnology, surface engineering	Can image non-conductive materials, providing a three-dimensional surface profile.	Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate, Christoph Gerber	1986	0.1
Fluorescence Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope	Optical	Biological sciences, medical diagnostics	Uses fluorescence and phosphorescence to study properties of organic or inorganic substances.	Oskar Heimstädt	1911	200
Phase Contrast Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopy	Optical	Live cell imaging without staining	Enhances contrast in transparent and colorless samples.	Frits Zernike	1934	200
Transmission Electron Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy	Electron	Material science, cancer research, virology	Capable of imaging at a significantly higher resolution than light microscopes, down to the level of atomic structures.	Ernst Ruska	1933	0.05
Scanning Electron Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope	Electron	Materials research, forensic examinations, biological research	Produces high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing detailed topography.	Manfred von Ardenne	1942	1
Digital Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_microscope	Optical	Education, industrial inspection, clinical research	Integration with digital cameras and computers for enhanced imaging and analysis.	Various contributors	1980	200
Stereo Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereo_microscope	Optical	Manufacturing, botany, entomology	Provides a three-dimensional viewing experience by using two separate optical paths.	Cherubin d'Orleans	1671	10000
X-ray Microscope	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_microscopy	X-ray	Material sciences, paleontology	Uses X-rays to penetrate samples and create images of the internal structure.	Raymond Castaing	1946	50
Cryo-Electron Microscopy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryo-electron_microscopy	Electron	Structural biology, virology	Allows imaging of samples at cryogenic temperatures, preserving native state.	Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank, Richard Henderson	1975	0.1

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	26	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Optical Microscope	string	1	false	true
wikipedia	26	200%	A URL to learn more about this kind of microscope.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope	string	1.9	false
type	26	200%	Classify each microscope by type (e.g., optical, electron, scanning probe) to allow users to filter and understand the specific applications and functionalities of different microscopes.	Optical	string	1.9	false
applications	26	200%	Describe common or notable applications of each microscope type, such as biology, materials science, nanotechnology, etc. This helps users understand where a particular microscope can be best utilized.	General biological and medical microscopy	string	1.9	false
keyAdvancements	26	200%	List significant improvements or iterations made over the initial model. This could include details on enhancements in resolution, usability, or adaptation to different scientific needs, showing the evolution of the technology.	Improved lens quality and microscope design for better image clarity and detail.	string	1.9	false
inventorDeveloper	26	200%	Knowing who invented or developed the microscope can provide historical context and acknowledgment of significant contributions in the field. This also helps in understanding the geographical and institutional origins of	Zacharias Janssen (attributed)	string	1.9	false
invented	26	200%	The year this telescope was invented	1590	number	1.9	false
resolution	26	200%	The smallest resolution it can see, in nanometers.	200	number	1.9	false

Nearby Stars

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	spectralType	distance	apparentMagnitude	absoluteMagnitude	radialVelocity	mass
Proxima Centauri	M5.5Ve	4.24	11.13	15.6	-22.204	0.1221
Alpha Centauri A	G2V	4.37	-0.01	4.38	-21.4	1.1
Alpha Centauri B	K1V	4.37	1.33	5.71	-18	0.907
Barnard's Star	M4.0Ve	5.96	9.54	13.22	-110.51	0.144
Sirius A	A1V	8.66	-1.46	1.42	-5.5	2.02
Sirius B	DA2	8.66	8.44	11.34	-5.5	1.018
Luyten 726-8 A	M5.5Ve	8.73	12.52	15.46	-32.5	0.102
Luyten 726-8 B	M6Ve	8.73	13.05	16.24	-25	0.1
Ross 154	M3.5Ve	9.69	10.44	13.92	-9.6	0.17
Ross 248	M5.5Ve	10.32	12.29	15.8	-81	0.136
Epsilon Eridani	K2V	10.48	3.73	6.18	15.5	0.82
Lacaille 9352	M0.5V	10.73	7.34	10.58	-37	0.45
Ross 128	M4V	11	11.15	14.79	-30	0.168
EZ Aquarii A	M5Ve	11.08	12.87	16.47	-60	0.13
EZ Aquarii B	M5Ve	11.08	12.87	16.47	-60	0.13
EZ Aquarii C	M5Ve	11.08	12.87	16.47	-60	0.13
61 Cygni A	K5V	11.4	5.2	7.49	-64.3	0.67

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	34	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Proxima Centauri	string	1	false	true
spectralType	34	200%	Classification of the star based on spectral characteristics and temperature, ranging from O (hot and blue) to M (cool and red)	M5.5Ve	string	1.9	false
distance	34	200%	The distance to the star from Earth, measured in light-years or parsecs	4.24	number	1.9	false
apparentMagnitude	34	200%	The brightness of the star as seen from Earth	11.13	number	1.9	false
absoluteMagnitude	34	200%	The intrinsic brightness of the star if it were placed at a standard distance of 10 parsecs from Earth	15.6	number	1.9	false
radialVelocity	34	200%	The speed at which the star moves towards or away from the Solar System, measured in km/s	-22.204	number	1.9	false
mass	34	200%	The mass of the star, expressed in solar masses	0.1221	number	1.9	false

Organelles

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	organism	diameter	low	median	high
Mitochondria	human	1000	200	500	2000
Chloroplast	plant	6000	20	40	100
Nucleus	human	6000	1	1	2
Golgi Apparatus	human	1200	10	20	50
Endoplasmic Reticulum	human	120	1	1	5
Ribosome	human	25	10000	50000	100000
Lysosome	human	1200	50	200	500
Peroxisome	human	500	100	300	500
Vacuole	plant	30000	1	1	3
Centrosome	human	700	1	2	2
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum	human	120	1	1	5
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum	human	150	1	1	5
Nucleolus	human	2500	1	1	4
Plasmodesmata	plant	50	1000	5000	10000
Mitosome	protozoa	500	5	10	20
Hydrogenosome	protozoa	500	5	10	20
Glyoxysome	plant	300	100	200	300
Chromoplast	plant	2000	2	5	10
Amyloplast	plant	2000	5	10	30
Elaioplast	plant	1000	10	20	50
Periplastidial compartment (PPC)	plant	100	5	15	30
Flagellum	protozoa	200	1	1	10
Cilium	human	250	10	50	100

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	46	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	Mitochondria	string	1	false	true
organism	46	200%	The organism name mainly associated with the organelle such as human, plant, whale, etc.	human	string	1.9	false
diameter	46	200%	The diameter of the organelle in nanometers	1000	number	1.9	false
low	46	200%	For cells that have this kind of organelle, how many are usually found on the low end?	200	number	1.9	false
median	46	200%	For cells that have this kind of organelle, how many are usually found in the median?	500	number	1.9	false
high	46	200%	For cells that have this kind of organelle, how many are usually found on the high end?	2000	number	1.9	false

Programming Languages

What is a ScrollSet? Read the one page paper.

Note: these ScrollSets were generated by LLMs without extensive human review.

Concepts

id	wikipedia	creators	appeared	openSource
JavaScript	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript	Brendan Eich	1995	true
Python	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)	Guido van Rossum	1991	true
Java	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)	James Gosling	1995	true
C++	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B	Bjarne Stroustrup	1979	true
C#	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)	Microsoft	2000	true
PHP	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP	Rasmus Lerdorf	1995	true
Swift	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)	Apple Inc.	2014	true
Go	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)	Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, Ken Thompson	2009	true
Kotlin	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotlin_(programming_language)	JetBrains	2011	true
Ruby	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)	Yukihiro Matsumoto	1995	true
Rust	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)	Graydon Hoare	2010	true
Scala	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala_(programming_language)	Martin Odersky	2004	true
TypeScript	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TypeScript	Microsoft	2012	true
Dart	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dart_(programming_language)	Lars Bak, Kasper Lund	2011	true
Elixir	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elixir_(programming_language)	José Valim	2011	true
Clojure	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clojure	Rich Hickey	2007	true
Haskell	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)	Lennart Augustsson, Dave Barton, Brian Boutel, Warren Burton, Joseph Fasel, Kevin Hammond, Ralf Hinze, Paul Hudak, John Hughes, Thomas Johnsson, Mark Jones, Simon Peyton Jones, John Launchbury, Erik Meijer, John Peterson, Alastair Reid, Colin Runciman, Philip Wadler	1990	true
Lua	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)	Roberto Ierusalimschy, Waldemar Celes, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo	1993	true
Perl	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl	Larry Wall	1987	true
R	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)	Ross Ihaka, Robert Gentleman	1993	true

Measures

Name	Values	Coverage	Question	Example	Type	SortIndex	IsComputed	IsRequired
id	40	200%	What is the ID of this concept?	JavaScript	string	1	false	true
wikipedia	40	200%	What is the Wikipedia page for this language?	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript	string	1.9	false
creators	40	200%	Who created this language?	Brendan Eich	string	1.9	false
appeared	40	200%	What year was the language publicly released and/or announced?	1995	number	1.9	false
openSource	40	200%	Is the language open source?	true	boolean	1.9	false